Ce'zanne: Through a study of art can be seen the way in which man has perceived the world about him. Born in 1839 and dying in 1906, Ce'zanne's life overlaps the end of a century and the beginning of our last. The subject's (emotional) view of life expressed in Romanticism, Realism and Impressionism did not satisfy Ce'zanne. His impressionist and Realist paintings gave a sense of dissatisfaction. Always sensitive to public opinion, Ce'zanne found the ridicule heaped on the Impressionists to much to bear and in 1877 he exhibited for the last time and withdrew from society to follow his own path - a path which led to revolutionary significance and modern painting. In the last years of his life, Ce'zanne came to believe that the painter must establish order and structure in the picture. He became contemptuous of the emotional and decorative work of Van Gogh and Gauguin. He organized the forms within his pictures giving careful consideration to balance, shape and space. Although Ce'zanne's pictures are the product of his logical organizing mind he was not fully aware of what he was doing or, if he was, did not say it in as many words for what he wrote often contradicted what he did. He did, however realize that he had begun a new approach to painting which was to cause his followers to call him "Father of Modern Art".
Seurat (Georges Seurat 1859 to 1891): Reflects through his paintings the opening of the age of scientific thought, of close examination of all things by man. Seurat gave precise expression to the objective approach of Ce'zanne's structural sense. But where Ce'zanne worked by intuition, Seurat and the "Neo-Impressionists set about the deliberate and intelligent construction of a picture.
Through long discussion with a group of young scientists, Seurat and the Neoimpressionists sought to establish a system of visual relationships of line, proportion colour - a formula by which harmony within a picture can be achieved. Seurat, like Ce'zanne, saw the painters task to be one of selection of mofits and their reorganization into a compact structural whole. In his scientific approach to the use of colour, Seurat aimed at preserving vividness of colours. He avoided dulling colours by mixing them. Pure pigment was placed on the canvas in tiny dots or strokes which when blended by the human eye, made a colour but full brilliance was retained. This method - Pointillism or Divisionism - produced delicate and subtle colour changes in hue and intensity. The ridged rules of composition and colour application tend to produce a lifeless static quality in Neo-Impressionist work (i.e.: Signac, Pissaro and Cross). Even in Seurat, figures appear as though frozen in an unreal timeless space. At their best, Seurat paintings are tranquil, harmonious and solid.
Symbolism
There are two basic forms of art - image and symbol. The artists may be true to the natural image in which he examines his subjects and presents an interpretation of what is seen. The approach has been pre-dominant in Western art since the cave-man, Greece, Rome, the Renaissance and up to Impressionism and Post-Impressionisn.
In Symbolism the artists seeks to give visual form to an idea. The images involved in the picture receive consideration only in so far as they convey the artists idea. The images are not important in themselves. This type of art is seen in the middle ages where the Christian message was more important than the figures themselves. Primitive peoples use a powerful symbolism in the art as does the quietly refined Chinese drawing symbolize creation itself rather than trees, rocks, water etc.
At the beginning of the 20th century in Europe two strong influences from other continents changed the course of our painting - Negro sculpture, and the Japanese print. Negro sculpture proved a strong influence on the following of Ce'zanne and his geometric approach. The Japanese print which appeared in the curio shops of Europe stimulated a new movement in painting, with its strong broad area of colour. This provided the means to a strong expressive technique in which the emotional impact of large colour are can be developed.
Puvis de Chavannes, Van Gogh, Gaugin and Matisse experimented with colour while the German Expressionists painters used emotion and idea as the communication. In each case the painter was not primarily concerned with the image but with symbol as a method of developing colour and communicating feelings.
Matisse (1869 to 1954) In the work and some of the Fauves (wild beasts) - Rovalt, Barque, Dufy, Marquet is to be seen abandonment of illusory effects of light and shade and realistic image.
Matisse sought to break the tight mechanical disciple of Neo-Impressionism. To him beauty of form (shape) contour (line) and colour can be used to express gracefulness and balance. It was also his belief that the artist must create a picture which is relaxing and pleasing to the beholder. Nowhere in his works do we see violence, unpleasantness or suffering. His subtle colour harmonizes and the flat two dimensional treatment make Matisse's painting succeed as good decorative pictures.
German Expressionism
Expressionism has always existed as a tendency in Northern European art. Through harsh natural surroundings - a nature which challenges his very existence - man becomes painfully aware of himself as an isolated individual. This leads him to self analysis and introspection and in the face of the impossible task of discovering absolute truth a world of fantasy and doubt is constructed.
In Germany, Expressionism reappears the twisting restless energy of the middle ages of Northern Europe. This contrasts the confident optimistism of Classical Mediterranean art in which calm and serenity prevail and nature is a backdrop to man's efforts.
Van Gogh, Gauguin and the Oriental print are strong influences in the formation of the German Expressionist style. However no group or school existed as such because expressionism is the product of loneliness and self examination. It was of these individuals though his inability to accept a social situation he found untenable.
Fauvism and German Expression have in common a broad simple use of colour but where the former was concerned with colourful pleasant subjects often bordering on the decorative, the latter was concerned with dark, brooding and often morbid subjects.
Surrealism
The two main steams of artistic development correspond approximately to two basic divisions of human temperament - introvert and extrovert types. Different periods have seen one or other of these attitudes gain impetus. The period of upheaval and disintegration of old patterns of life in the first world war of 1914 to 1918 found the artist unable to confine to one style - a good example is Picasso and his ever-changing course. The train of thought motivation is totally distinct from any contemporary movement and makes a break with traditions of the past. The probing of the deep well of the subconscious mind with its repression's anxieties turned painters attention toward attempting to release the latent power of imagination within oneself.
Inspiration came from the new discoveries in psychoanalysis in which Sigmund Freud sought an answer to man's psychological complexities through analysis of the dream as expression of the subconscious
This is not to say the Surrealism falls within the limits of a subconscious or dream world. It does however seek to discover the freshness of thought and experience of the individual whose behavior patterns have since birth been molded to the demands of society.
Several influences were instrumental in forming the surrealist movement of 1924 - Frauds psychoanalysis, futurism, Dada, the Metaphysical painters and Marc Chagall.
Fururism: Emphasized man's new environment of iron and steel, machines and speed. This caused a reassessment of himself in the light of new living conditions.
Dadaists: Sought to destroy the veneer of false respectability surrounding tradition forms of art. The Dadaists painters and writers were out to shock the public at a time of social and political interest of W.W.I. and cleared the way for the new surrealist movement
Metaphysical Painting: De Chirico and Carra whom he influenced, became obsessed with a concept of time and space which came from the ancient ruins of Rome and Greece standing in the middle of 20th century technology. De Chiro painted bewildering dreamlike landscapes of classical peace and calm with present day objects in unusual relationship -e.g.; a steam train - which gave new meaning by idea of association.
Marc Chagall's dreamlike pictures draw upon boyhood memories of his native Russia for subject material. He is primarily a narrative painter - a story teller - using a highly personal and dream imagination which results in a fresh simplicity to events past and only vaguely remembered.
Surrealism was never intended to set a style or type of art - the very nature of the movement aimed at liberating the individuals imaginative powers. Chagall had already done this.
Max Ernest: became one of the most active and representative of surrealist painters. He participated in the Dada revolt against traditional art and joined the Surrealist movement to create his own dreamworld of mysterious landscapes and creatures. He used collage and froftage to combine images in unusual relationship wit new significance.
Joan Miro: invented a personal form of painting great simplicity and unfettered by any problems of tradition, schools of painting or literary influences. His painting has clear fresh colour, a humorous simplicity and mystical meaning which is also seen in primitive and child art. The forms in Miro's pictures are nevertheless drawn with precision and seriousness such as is seen in the religious cult figures of primitive people.
Jean (Hans) Arp: Arm with Ernest, was a member of the Dadaists and became a founder member of the Surrealists. Like Ernest, Arp painted what he called "pure psychic automatism" = direct thought and imagination without the imitations of reason or accepted aesthetic or moral beliefs. Arp painted and sculpted forms which have the simplicity and perfection of things in nature (stones, shells, wood etc.).
Yves Tan Guy: Tanguy developed a world of forms with no recognizable equivalent in the real worked, but all were in logical relationship to one another.
Salvador Dali: The highly dramatic and theatrical choice of subject material and photographic realism of his style have gained much publicity for Dali. His lack of integrity has caused his denunciation by other Surrealist artists. What Dali terms his "paranoiac critical activity" involves a vulgar sensationalism calculated to excite the mind of the viewer through seemingly chance combinations of objects of psychotic significance.
The most important aspect of Surrealism is exploration of the individual mind, its thoughts, anxieties, fears, freed from boundaries of traditional thinking.
Paul Klee: This portion of my notes seems to be missing.. to be added later.
Cubism
The name Cubism, like Fauvism was started by critics as a term of derision. But where Fauvism was very short-lived, Cubism and its influences are with us today although original cubists, Pablo Picasso and Georges Garque, Ferdinand, Leger and Juan Gris have long since gone their various ways.
In Cubism we see man attempting to establish a new law and order in the visual world. He is no longer content with the single spectator viewpoint which had been the method of painting used since the Renaissance. In the world of science leading minds of the 20th century were attacking the old concepts of man as the centre of the universe. A new reality was being built in which man was relatively insignificant unit. In painting the presentation of a man oriented existent was challenged by Ce'zanne who had found geometric foundations to his view of life.
Cubism as a movement may be said to commence with the painting "Les Demoiselles d'Avignon" by Picasso in 1907. This most significant painting owes much to Ce'zannes bathers series in the attempt to methodically organize the canvas area. But in Picasso's Les Demoiselles d'Avignon the two figures on the right are painted by sharply outlined drawing - the traditional use chiaroscuro (light and shade) and perspective are completely discarded. The influence of an exhibition of African Degro sculpture seen by Picasso in this same year may explain the broadly faceted appearance of Cubism - as though chopped cut with an axe.
Also in this same year, 1907, Picasso met Barque and the two worked enthusiastically together although both followed individual styles of Cubism.
Picasso worked intuitively and was dictated by emotion (his earlier blue and pink period pictures were Expressionism).
Braque although he had been one of the Fauves composed his Cubism on a more reasoning approach. Picasso was a natural draughtsman (good at drawing). He applied colour to his drawings. Braque, fresh from the colour experiments of the Fauves used a painting approach - colour, tone, and shape are emphasized.
The Cubism of Legar reflects a mechanical view of life (c/f Futurism). The strong solid volumes in his work inspire a sense of confidence and power.
Delaunay used the bold simple forms of Cubism to arrange colour relationships of a bright, lively nature.
Juan Gris used a clear precise and geometric type of Cubism in which he insisted upon never destroying the visual appearance of his subjects. Gris in particular and the cubists generally have had a far reaching effects in all fields of design - architecture, illustration, advertising, pottery, textiles, carpets, wallpapers, machinery (e.g.; motor car).
Cubism appeared in two distinct phases. First came Analytical Cubism in which the chosen subject is presented in its geometric form and a combination of multiple view points. Following came Synthetic Cubism in which known parts of a subject were assembled with out first setting it up or composing it. This included the combined painting collage and full collage in which objects related to the subjects were glued to the canvas.
Although Cubism at times approached destruction of the visual form of an object it never crossed the threshold into complete abstraction. In otherwords, the cubist painter or sculptor was still in touch with the material world.
The Bauhaus
The beginning of industrialization and mass production confused architects, artists and designers of the 19th Century.
People like William Morris could see the need of good design but he was conservative and unrealistic in his rejection of machine production methods. It was in Germany in 1907 that the first effort to unite artists, craftsman, designers and manufacturers was made with the formation of the Deutcher Werkbund under the direction of architect Peter Behrens. Another architect who trained under Behrens was Walter Gropius who originated a new school of art and design at Wiemar in 1919 called the Bauhaus. This school was designed to integrate art, craft and production. The syllabus consisted of two sections:-
1, Formal - Observation from nature. Representative - geometry, construction, model making, draughtsmanship. Composition - study of space, volume, colour and design.
2, Practical - Material studies, Working process.
The school was non-academic in that there were not students and teachers but apprentices and instructors who worked together on the joint projects. In 1924 the Bauhaus was accused of taking a political line and was forced to move to Dessau.
At Dessau a new school was built by the staff and students. The entire school was treated as a design project by staff and students and became an expression of what Bauhaus stood for. In 1932 the NAZI party closed down the Bauhaus despite a storm of public protest. The staff of the Bauhaus included some of Europe's greatest artists and designers - Behren, Walter Gropius, Mies Van der Rohe,- architects. Kandinsky, Klee, Fienginer - painters. Moholy Nagy - Sculptor and photographer. Marcel Breuer - furniture designer.
Abstract
The tendency toward abstraction is a phenomenon to be observed at many stages of man's artistic development. Indeed it is only in the arts of painting and sculpture that the "representation" of something has traditionally been demanded. Music, architecture, the dance are not expected to represent something - they are excepted as things in their own right. Discussion brings about no real clarification of the problem as abstraction appears to have some in favour and some fanatically against.
The first deliberate abstract painting was Wassily Kandinsky in 1910. Abstraction was a product of the slavic mind - Kandinsky, born in Moscow - and Kupka was a Czek. Both made paintings of a colourful lyrical nature using music as inspiration.
The Destijl Group: was formed in Holland in 1917. They took the process of abstraction into relationships of proportion, line and colour. Of note were painters Piet Modrain and Theo van Does-burg. The group sought plastic purity by reducing art to a statement of relationships of line and colour. Destijl principles powerfully influence the fields of design like architecture, furniture, ceramics, decoration, graphic art etc.
Abstract Expressionism: "Tachisme" (or Abstract Expressionism) began in Post World War 2 in France. In this activity the artist places emphasis on the physical gesture of painting (in line with post-war existentialist philosophy). The process of creating something which exists in its own right free from and preconceived values or traditions was followed by Destijl, in Holland, Soulages, Manessier, Tal Coat, Rioplle in France, Tobey, Motherwell, Rothko, Kline, and Pollock in the U.S.A.
Abstract Expressionism appealed to the Japanese Zen influence freedom - drugculture and expanding the field of experience of artist and spectator.
Pop Art: Pop art originated in about 1954 in England and grew out of discussions centred around mass culture: movies, advertising, pulp fiction, pop music, etc. The small independent group at the Institute of Contemporary Art in London worked in no single clear cut style and with no clear distinction between painting and sculpture - indeed both were combined. Much of the out-put was screen prints, collage, photo-montage and "ready mades" (industrial products). Pop contains elements of surrealism for a new imagery after vagueness of abstraction.
Paolozzi (b. Scotland 1924) was important as a maker of screen prints, collages and sculpture. Richard Smith, Peter Blake and David Hockney were English Pop Artists of note.
In conclusion, Pop Art could claim to be Realism (recognizable everyday objects) Surrealism (well known objects in unusual situations) and Expressionism (emotional reaction by artist to subject) all in combination. Of course it reflects the attitudes of the 1950's and 1960's when it was originated, but the period can be applied to any period of time. References of objects of a particular time - motor car, fashion of dress, new product on the market, if carefully selected and combined in unusual combinations, can create the feeling of a period in society.
Op Art (Optical): Op art is concerned with the illusion of movement and vibration that can be achieved on a flat surface by careful combination of colour and shape. It involves primarily and investigation into the scientific nature of colour (c/f Seurat). Combinations of colour appear to pulsate or vibrate or clash violently or harmonize softly to produce a physical sensation. Op art must be associated with the mind rather than everyday.
Important artists are:
Bridgit Riley (b. England 1931) Studied at the Royal Collage of Art, London and began to study the effects of juxaposed dots of colour. She began in black and white and by the 1950's was using colour.
Victor de Vasarley was born in Hungary, lived in Paris and by 1944 he was painting pictures covered with pebble and crystal like shapes. More recently he has investigated the kinetic possibilities in art working in deep relief and geometric grids. Much more of his work is in black and white.
Kenneth Noland (b. U.S.A 1924) Studied under Aalbers and Zadkine in Paris. Noland floods his canvas with luminous colour that his work can be considered as an interaction of one colour with another. Circular bounds of colour cause the eye to move from centre to circumference and back again. Contrasts of size give a simulated spatial feel to the eye. He late abandoned concentric colours and worked asymmetric canvases.
Colour Field Painting: In which the canvas is covered with coloured patterns making.
Hard Edge: in which shapes are treated in flat colour to clearly define form.
Minimal Art: in which the object presented has the least possible interference on the part of the artist.
Kinetic Art: in which movement is either simulated (trick effect) or is actual (like mobile).